Figure 1-1 Evolution of electromobility [1] .................................................................................... 3 Figure 1-2 Schematic diagram of a Li-ion battery and main reactions [2] .................................... 4 Figure 1-3 Schematic diagram of a PHEV pack manusfactured by A123 Sysems .......................... 6 Figure 2-1 Single particle model (on the right) based on沿X轴完全电化学模型的空间离散化（左侧）。每个电极只有一个粒子，我们可以将每个节点的值视为电极上的平均数量[22]。............ 13 Figure 2-2 Different types of battery models used in battery management systems (Single particle and Pseudo-two dimensional models from [24]) ........................................................................... 15 Figure 2-3 Concentration gradient through the sphere, representing the single particle model .16图2-4 G（S）及其近似H（S）的比较。........................................................ 16 Figure 2-5 Comparison of fractional transfer function and its approximation in a frequency domain limited to the range including the BMS sampling frequency (approx.70 rad.s -1）。........... 18 Figure 2-6 Block diagram implementation of the electrical fractional model .............................. 18 Figure 2-7 OCP curves of Anode (left) and Cathode (right) against the respective lithiation degree ............................................................................................................................................. 21 Figure 2-8 Validation results of applying extended Artemis drive cycle to the fractional 模型 。23图2-9电压模型和分数电池模型的绝对估计误差和订单7 ECM的各自的绝对估计误差。................................................................................................................................................ 48 Figure 4-6 SDI 28 Ah cell opening at BOL ................................................................................... 52 Figure 4-7 SDI 28 Ah cell opening at EOL ................................................................................... 52